The Theology of Pentecost

For most of this content, I am indebted to the work of Richard B. Gaffin, Jr.:

• Perspectives on Pentecost (P&R, 1979)
• In the Fullness of Time (Crossway, 2022)

Although the Ascension of Christ and his outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost is taught in numerous passages throughout the NT, only Luke narrates the whole complex in detail and as a theologically unified series of events. This is Luke’s tremendous theological contribution to the theology of the NT.

The Kingdom of God in the Teaching of Jesus

This is a review of material from my course on the Gospels.

Inaugurated Eschatology (Already/Not Yet) view

1. The kingdom is both present and future. It was inaugurated by Jesus’ ministry, death, and resurrection, but awaits final consummation at his return.
2. The tension between the “already” (present signs of the kingdom) and the “not yet” (final fulfillment).

Some of the passages where GLuke shows that the kingdom is present in the person and ministry of Jesus:

1. Luke 4:18–21: “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, for he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor … Today this Scripture [Isa 61:1-2] has been fulfilled in your hearing” (ESV).
2. Luke 4:43: “I must preach the good news of the kingdom of God to the other towns as well; for I was sent for this purpose.” (ESV)
3. Luke 6:20: “And he lifted up his eyes on his disciples, and said: ‘Blessed are you who are poor, for yours is the kingdom of God.’
4. Luke 7:22–23: “Go and tell John what you have seen and heard: the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, lepers are cleansed, and the deaf hear, the dead are raised up, the poor have good news preached to them [Isa 35:5-6; 61:1]. And blessed is the one who is not offended by me.” (ESV)
5. Luke 8:1: “Soon afterward he went on through cities and villages, heralding and proclaiming the good news of the kingdom of God.”
6. Luke 10:8–11: “Whenever you enter a town and they receive you, eat what is set before you. [9] Heal the sick in it and say to them, ‘The kingdom of God has come near to you.’ [10] But whenever you enter a town and they do not receive you, go into its streets and say, [11] ‘Even the dust of your town that clings to our feet we wipe off against you. Nevertheless know this, that the kingdom of God has come near.’” (ESV)
7. Luke 11:20: “But if it is by the finger of God [= “the Spirit of God,” Matt 12:28] that I cast out demons, then the kingdom of God has come upon you.” (ESV).
8. Luke 16:16: “The Law and the Prophets were until John; since then the good news of the kingdom of God is preached, and everyone forces his way into it.” (ESV)
9. Luke 17:20–21: Being asked by the Pharisees when the kingdom of God would come, he answered them, “The kingdom of God is not coming in ways that can be observed, [21] nor will they say, ‘Look, here it is!’ or ‘There!’ for behold, the kingdom of God is in the midst of you.” (ESV)

The kingdom is present as God’s saving rule through his Anointed. It arrives in Jesus himself, his proclamation, forgiveness, healings, exorcisms, the defeat of Satan, and the formation of the community that receives him.

Yet GLuke also speaks of the kingdom as a future reality in the final consummation:

1. Luke 13:28–29: “In that place there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth, when you see Abraham and Isaac and Jacob and all the prophets in the kingdom of God but you yourselves cast out. [29] And people will come from east and west, and from north and south, and recline at table in the kingdom of God.” (ESV)
2. Luke 21:31: “So also, when you see these things taking place, you know that the kingdom of God is near.” (ESV)
3. Luke 22:16–18: “For I tell you I will not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God.” [17] And he took a cup, and when he had given thanks he said, “Take this, and divide it among yourselves. [18] For I tell you that from now on I will not drink of the fruit of the vine until the kingdom of God comes.” (ESV)
4. Luke 22:29–30: “And I assign to you, as my Father assigned to me, a kingdom, [30] that you may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of Israel.” (ESV)

The same already/not-yet dynamic can be documented in Matthew and Mark. I am focusing on GLuke because it is volume 1 preparing for volume 2 (Acts).

Is kingdom a reign or a realm?

1. Kgdm-as-Reign emphasizes the inaugurated dimension: God’s dynamic action in Christ’s death and resurrection, and the Spirit-empowered mission of the church in the present age.
2. Kgdm-as-Realm emphasizes the consummated dimension: the ultimate fulfillment of the kingdom in the new heavens and new earth.
3. Both must be affirmed:
   • Christ reigns now from heaven—by his Spirit given to his church to be his witnesses.
   • At his parousia there will be a realm where his reign is acknowledged and manifested over all creation, “the restoration (apokatastasis) of all things” (Acts 3:21).

The reign of Christ is focused in the present age on the preaching of the gospel and the calling and gathering of his people—who will dwell in the renewed creation.

This reign of Christ in the present age of gospel-proclamation is what the Book of Acts is describing:

“In the first book, O Theophilus, I have dealt with all that Jesus began to do and teach, [2] until the day when he was taken up, after he had given commands through the Holy Spirit to the apostles whom he had chosen. [3] He presented himself alive to them after his suffering by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days and speaking about the kingdom of God.”— Acts 1:1–3 (ESV) … whom heaven must receive until the time for restoring all the things about which God spoke by the mouth of his holy prophets long ago.“— Acts 3:21 (ESV)

The Holy Spirit and the Kingdom in Luke-Acts

The Spirit in GLuke

There is a tight connection between the Spirit and the kingdom (see above—Lk 4:18,43; 11:20).

Notice as well the difference between Jesus and the disciples in GLuke:

1. Jesus is presented in GLuke as anointed with and fully empowered with the Spirit. The Spirit empowered his virgin conception (Lk 1:35). The Spirit descended upon him at his baptism (Lk 3:22). Immediately after his baptism: “And Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, returned from the Jordan” (Lk 4:1). And in his inaugural sermon in Nazareth he said, “The Spirit of the Lord is upon me” (Lk 4:18,21).
2. The disciples prior to Pentecost are presented in GLuke as not yet fully possessing the Spirit—they are waiting for the promise of the Spirit (Lk 11:13; 24:49). (This is not to deny the Spirit’s working in them in the same way that the Spirit worked in all the OT saints prior to Pentecost.) The disciples are not said to be “filled with the Holy Spirit” until after Pentecost (Acts 2:4; 4:8, 31).

Connecting Luke 24 and Acts 1-2

The Gospel of John in our New Testament canon intervenes between GLuke and Acts, but it is imperative to bracket John for a moment, and observe how GLuke ends and Acts begins.

Immediately before he is taken up into heaven, Jesus speaks to the disciples of the promise of the Father (i.e., the Spirit) and their commission as witnesses.

GLuke ends with this:

“Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead, 47 and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all nations, beginning from Jerusalem. 48 You are witnesses of these things. 49 And behold, I am sending the promise of my Father upon you. But stay in the city until you are clothed with power from on high.” 50 Then he led them out as far as Bethany, and lifting up his hands he blessed them. 51 While he blessed them, he parted from them and was carried up into heaven. 52 And they worshiped him and returned to Jerusalem with great joy, 53 and were continually in the temple blessing God. —Lk 24:46-53 (ESV)

Acts begins with it:

In the first book, O Theophilus, I have dealt with all that Jesus began to do and teach, 2 until the day when he was taken up, after he had given commands through the Holy Spirit to the apostles whom he had chosen. 3 He presented himself alive to them after his suffering by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days and speaking about the kingdom of God. 4 And while staying with them he ordered them not to depart from Jerusalem, but to wait for the promise of the Father, which, he said, “you heard from me; 5 for John baptized with water, but you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit not many days from now.” 6 So when they had come together, they asked him, “Lord, will you at this time restore the kingdom to Israel?” 7 He said to them, “It is not for you to know times or seasons that the Father has fixed by his own authority. 8 But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth.” 9 And when he had said these things, as they were looking on, he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight. —Acts 1:1-9 (ESV)

Before he ascends, he speaks of “the promise of the Father,” that is, the gift of the Holy Spirit, which will be given to the apostles in order to empower them to be his “witnesses.” That is not to deny that the Holy Spirit will be given to all believers, not just the apostles. But the point that is highlighted here at the end of GLuke and the opening of Acts is how the Spirit will be given to the apostles for a specific task.

Note the sequence:

1. The resurrected Christ is about to ascend into heaven.
2. Once in heaven, the exalted Christ will send the promise of the Father, that is, the Spirit.
3. As a result of the Spirit coming upon them, the apostles will be empowered to be Christ’s witnesses to the end of the earth.

Pentecost’s Connection to Christ’s Redemptive Work

Fulfillment of John the Baptist’s Prophecy concerning the Baptism of the Spirit

Luke 3:16: John’s prophecy

John answered them all, saying, “I baptize you with water, but he who is mightier than I is coming, the strap of whose sandals I am not worthy to untie. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire.” (ESV)

Acts 1:4-5: The fulfillment announced by Jesus:

“And while staying with them he ordered them not to depart from Jerusalem, but to wait for the promise of the Father, which, he said, “you heard from me; for John baptized with water, but you will be baptized with the Holy Spirit not many days from now.” (ESV)

In Acts 1:5 Jesus declares that John the Baptist’s prophecy of “baptism with Holy Spirit and fire” (Lk 3:16) is about to be fulfilled.

Pentecost should be understood as the crowning culmination of the messianic mission of Jesus.

Gaffin:

“As John surveys the impending activity of Jesus as a whole, the element that he sees to be central and distinguishing is baptism with the Holy Spirit and fire. The goal of Jesus’s ministry in its entirety is put under the denominator of this baptizing activity … Jesus the baptizer” (In the Fullness of Time, 98).

Cp. John 1:33: “I did not recognize Him, but He who sent me to baptize in water said to me, ‘He upon whom you see the Spirit descending and remaining upon Him, this is the One who baptizes [οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ βαπτίζων] in the Holy Spirit.’ (NASB)

Baptism of Jesus and Messianic Mission

1. At the Jordan, Jesus receives the Spirit to inaugurate his messianic ministry
2. Pentecost delivers that same Spirit to the church because Christ has completed his work.
3. In biblical theology, we distinguish between redemption accomplished and redemption applied.
4. Pentecost is part of what Christ accomplished.

Meaning of the Physical Phenomena at Pentecost

The “sound like a mighty rushing of wind” (Acts 2:2) and the “divided tongues as of fire” (Acts 2:3) are symbolic, echoing divine presence and judgment imagery.

“Fire” fulfills John’s prophecy in Luke 3:16-17 (= Matt 3:11-12):

“I baptize you with water, but he who is mightier than I is coming, the strap of whose sandals I am not worthy to untie. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire. [17] His winnowing fork is in his hand, to clear his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his barn, but the chaff he will burn with unquenchable fire.” (ESV)

“Fire” signifies both purification and judgment, reflecting divine justice and refining work.

Malachi 3:1-4:

“Behold, I send my messenger, and he will prepare the way before me. And the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple; and the messenger of the covenant in whom you delight, behold, he is coming, says the Lord of hosts. 2 But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears? For he is like a refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap. 3 He will sit as a refiner and purifier of silver, and he will purify the sons of Levi and refine them like gold and silver, and they will bring offerings in righteousness to the Lord. 4 Then the offering of Judah and Jerusalem will be pleasing to the Lord as in the days of old and as in former years.”

Isaiah 4:4:

“when the Lord shall have washed away the filth of the daughters of Zion and cleansed the bloodstains of Jerusalem from its midst by a spirit of judgment and by a spirit of burning.”

The physical phenomena are visible signs of God’s giving of the Spirit as the means of establishing the church and advancing salvation.

Cp. OT judgment imagery (e.g., the Glory-Cloud; purification by fire), shows continuity of God’s activity in redemptive history.

Gaffin’s argument about “the tongues as of fire” that rested on the 120 disciples at Pentecost (In the Fullness of Time, 169-70) as an outward sign of justification, that is, proof that they have passed through the fire of judgment in union with Christ and are not consumed (cp. Isaiah 43:2: “when you walk through fire you shall not be burned, and the flame shall not consume you”)

The Spirit, the Ascended Christ, and the Church

Relationship Between Spirit and Christ

1. Pentecost manifests the ongoing presence of the ascended Christ by the Spirit.
2. Even before the parousia of Christ, he is present with his church by means of the Spirit.
3. The tight bonding of Ascension-Pentecost in Luke’s narrative theology is restated by Paul in more direct terms: Christ as “life-giving Spirit” (1 Cor 15:45).

“You, however, are not in the flesh but in the Spirit, if in fact the Spirit of God dwells in you. Anyone who does not have the Spirit of Christ does not belong to him. 10 But if Christ is in you, although the body is dead because of sin, the Spirit is life because of righteousness. 11 If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through his Spirit who dwells in you.” —Rom 8:9-11 (ESV)

The Ascension and Gift of the Spirit

1. Pentecost is the culmination of the life, death, resurrection, and Ascension of Jesus.
2. Without Ascension, the Spirit could not be poured out.
3. The Spirit’s coming is not a separate, later event but is the inseparable capstone of Christ’s work.
4. Part of his exaltation and reward (Acts 2:33).

Contra Pentecostal theology

Pentecost is an unrepeatable, unique event in redemptive history, just as unrepeatable as the death and resurrection of Christ.

Pentecostal theology views Pentecost as something we should long to see repeated either as a personal experience (second blessing) or as a corporate revival.

How do we explain mini-Pentecosts in Acts 8, 10, 19?

1. Pentecost itself is a singular historical event, but in the early days of the church it had ongoing manifestations for first non-Jewish converts (Samaritans, Cornelius) showing that the Gentiles are now included.
2. Subsequent outpourings are not repetitions of the event but continuations of the Spirit’s work in carrying forward the apostolic mission.

Gaffin, In the Fullness of Time, 134-38.

These subsequent mini-Pentecosts are also part of the unrepeatable apostolic foundation.

1. They do not justify the Pentecostal theology of continuous blessings and revivals subsequent to conversion.
2. That theology denigrates the cross and implies that faith in Christ is insufficient (cp. Gal 3:1-5).

Christocentric character of Pentecost

Peter’s Sermon at Pentecost

Act 2:33: “Being therefore exalted at the right hand of God, and having received from the Father the promise of the Holy Spirit, he has poured out this that you yourselves are seeing and hearing.”

Peter centers his sermon on Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension, with the Spirit’s arrival testifying to God’s vindication of Christ.

Peter makes clear in his sermon that Pentecost is about redemptive history reaching its pinnacle in the exaltation of Christ.

Implications for Theology, Worship, and Witness

In our preaching and teaching, we must see the Spirit’s coming as the crowning moment of the Christ-event (as stated in John’s preaching at the very outset of each of the four Gospels - Mt 3:11 / Mk 1:8 / Lk 3:16 / Jn 1:33).

Pentecost is unrepeatable but it is also foundational to the church’s mission, ongoing life, and eschatological hope.

We should view the church as the Spirit-filled people of God empowered to bear witness to Christ.

The Significance of Pentecost

Gaffin, In the Fullness of Time, 152-73.

The Ecclesiological Significance of Pentecost

“The church—specifically as the new covenant community of God’s people—comes into existence at Pentecost” (154).

This statement is must not be misunderstood in a dispensational sense, separating Israel and the church and denying that there is only one people of God.

But in our zeal to uphold the unity of the covenant, we must also recognize that something new happened at Pentecost. Matt 16:18: “I will build my church.”

The Trinitarian Significance of Pentecost

Pentecost is the fulfillment of “the promise of the Father” (Lk 24:49; A 1:4). The “of” is a genitive of source. The Son is the one who mediates the gift of the Spirit.

“Being therefore exalted at the right hand of God, and having received from the Father the promise of the Holy Spirit, he has poured out this that you yourselves are seeing and hearing.” —Acts 2:33 (ESV)

The ultimate aim of the covenant of grace is for the triune God to dwell with his people. That can only happen through the work of Christ, which culminates in his sending the Spirit.

“… built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone, in whom the whole structure, being joined together, grows into a holy temple in the Lord. In him you also are being built together into a dwelling place for God by the Spirit.” —Eph 2:20–22 (ESV)

The Forensic Significance of Pentecost

A corporate, public manifestation of the church’s Justification:

Gaffin:

“Pentecost is fundamentally a matter of judgment; Pentecost is a forensic reality … Pentecost is part of the end-time judicial transaction of God. It is of a piece with God’s eschatological adjudication … What takes place at Pentecost is at the heart of Christ’s once-for-all work” (100-1)

The future eschatological verdict has been brought forward into the present.

A corporate, public manifestation of the church’s Adoption:

Just as at the baptism of Jesus, the Spirit descended on him in the form of a dove, and the voice of the Father from heaven said, “You are my Son,” so at Pentecost, the coming of the Spirit on believers is God’s declaration, “You are my sons and daughters” (adoption). (172).