The Prison Epistles: the Location of Paul's Imprisonment

The Prison Epistles are Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon. They are called that because in these four letters, Paul repeatedly refers to his current status as a prisoner for Christ:

Eph 3:1 “For this reason I, Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus on behalf of you Gentiles—”
Eph 4:1 “I therefore, a prisoner for the Lord, urge you to walk in a manner worthy of the calling to which you have been called.”
Eph 6:20 “…for which I am an ambassador in chains, that I may declare it boldly, as I ought to speak.”
Phil 1:7 “… you are all partakers with me of grace, both in my imprisonment and in the defense and confirmation of the gospel.”
Phil 1:13 “So that it has become known throughout the whole imperial guard and to all the rest that my imprisonment is for Christ.”
Phil 1:14 “And most of the brothers, having become confident in the Lord by my imprisonment, are much more bold to speak the word without fear.”
Phil 1:16 “The latter do it out of love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel.”
Col 4:3 “…that God may open to us a door for the word, to declare the mystery of Christ, on account of which I am in prison.”
Col 4:18 “I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand. Remember my chains. Grace be with you.”
Phm 1 “Paul, a prisoner for Christ Jesus…”
Phm 9 “…I, Paul, an old man and now a prisoner also for Christ Jesus.”
Phm 10 “…I appeal to you for my child Onesimus, whose father I became in my imprisonment.”
Phm 13 “…that he might serve me on your behalf during my imprisonment for the gospel.”

But this begs the question—where was Paul imprisoned when he wrote these four epistles? There are three main possibilities: Rome, Ephesus, and Caesarea Maritima. I argue for Rome and against the other two options.

1. Rome

This is the traditional view.

Arguments for Rome

According to Acts (28:30-31), Paul spent two years under house arrest in Rome awaiting trial before Caesar (c. AD 60–62).
Paul lived under guard yet could receive visitors—consistent with writing and sending letters.
Phil 1:13 mentions “the whole imperial guard” (praetorium), most naturally taken to be the well-known elite military unit that served as the personal guard of the emperor in Rome.
Phil 4:22 refers to believers in “Caesar’s household” = members of the emperor’s family and/or administrative staff, suggesting the imperial capital, Rome.
A two-year custody allows time for multiple letters and messengers back and forth.

Difficulties with Rome

Travel distances from Rome to Asia Minor and Philippi are very large (800–900 miles), which complicates the complex exchange of messengers implied in Philippians. Several trips required:

The Philippians send Epaphroditus with financial support (Phil 4:18).
Epaphroditus becomes seriously ill (Phil 2:27).
News of his illness reaches Philippi (Phil 2:26), and the Philippians become distressed.
Paul sends Epaphroditus back with the letter (Phil 2:25–30).
Paul hopes soon to send Timothy (Phil 2:19).
Paul hopes to visit personally (Phil 2:24).

This logistical puzzle became the central driver of alternative locations.

2. Ephesus

For those bothered by the logistical puzzle, Ephesus is the most popular alternative. This theory proposes an unrecorded imprisonment in Ephesus, during Paul’s 3-year stay there (Acts 19-20).

Arguments for Ephesus

Philippi, Colossae, and other cities are much closer to Ephesus than to Rome.
The travels of Epaphroditus and other messengers (Phil 2:25-30; 4:18).
Paul mentions other imprisonments not recorded in Acts (2 Cor 11:23), so that leaves room for one during his 3-year stay in Ephesus.
“If, humanly speaking, I fought with beasts at Ephesus” (1 Cor 15:32) could imply an imprisonment there.
The term “praetorium” (Phil 1:13) does not have to be taken as a reference to the imperial guard in Rome, but could refer to a provincial governor’s residence or fortress (Matt 27:27; Mk 15:16; John 18:28, 33; 19:9; Acts 23:35).

Difficulties with Ephesus

Ben Witherington III has a good critique of the Ephesus theory: “The Case of the Imprisonment That Did Not Happen: Paul at Ephesus,” JETS 60/3 (2017): 525–32.

No source—biblical or extra-biblical—states that Paul was ever imprisoned in Ephesus.
The theory was proposed because scholars were looking for a location that would solve the logistical problems.
“Fighting with beasts” is probably not meant literally. Paul was not a gladiator and he was “an old man” (Phm 9) - how could he have survived literal combat in the arena? By adding the qualifier, “humanly speaking” (cp. Rom 6:19), Paul implies that he is not speaking literally but metaphorically for his conflicts with opponents of his missionary work, like the riot in Ephesus (Acts 19:23-41).
When “the whole imperial guard” (Phil 1:13) is taken together with “Caesar’s household” (Phil 4:22), “praetorium” almost certainly points to the well-known imperial guard in Rome.

3. Caesarea Maritima

This is an older proposal and not widely held any more. But we still consider it.

Arguments for Caesarea Maritima

According to Acts (23:23–26:32), Paul was imprisoned for about two years in Caesarea under governors Felix and Festus (c. AD 57–59).
A long imprisonment, comparable to the duration of Paul’s custody in Rome.
Caesarea is closer to Asia Minor; easier travel routes to Colossae and other churches.
When Paul came to Caesarea he was held in “Herod’s praetorium” (Acts 23:33-35), which proponents identify with the praetorium Paul refers to (Phil 1:13).
Again, the term “praetorium” (Phil 1:13) does not have to be taken as a reference to the imperial guard in Rome, but could refer to a provincial governor’s residence or fortress (Matt 27:27; Mk 15:16; John 18:28, 33; 19:9; Acts 23:35).

Difficulties with Caesarea Maritima

In Acts 23:35 the term “praetorium” clearly refers to a physical building (Herod’s fortress), whereas in Phil 1:13 it refers to the guard which is composed of men: “It has become known throughout the whole imperial guard and to all the others that my imprisonment is for Christ.”
Again, when taken together with “Caesar’s household” (Phil 4:22), “praetorium” in Phil 1:13 almost certainly points to the famous imperial guard in Rome.

Conclusion

Thus, the traditional location—Rome—remains the best option for the location from which Paul wrote Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon.

A final argument for Rome: An imprisonment in any city other than the capital city of the Roman Empire does not fit well with Paul’s rejoicing in how his imprisonment has fulfilled his long-held desire to preach the gospel in Rome.

First, consider how often Paul had desired to visit Rome, the capital city of the empire:

Rom 1:8-15: “First, I thank my God through Jesus Christ for all of you, because your faith is proclaimed in all the world. 9 For God is my witness, whom I serve with my spirit in the gospel of his Son, that without ceasing I mention you 10 always in my prayers, asking that somehow by God’s will I may now at last succeed in coming to you. 11 For I long to see you, that I may impart to you some spiritual gift to strengthen you— 12 that is, that we may be mutually encouraged by each other’s faith, both yours and mine. 13 I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, that I have often intended to come to you (but thus far have been prevented), in order that I may reap some harvest among you as well as among the rest of the Gentiles. 14 I am under obligation both to Greeks and to barbarians, both to the wise and to the foolish. 15 So I am eager to preach the gospel to you also who are in Rome.”

Acts 19:21: “Now after these events Paul resolved in the Spirit to pass through Macedonia and Achaia and go to Jerusalem, saying, ‘After I have been there, I must also see Rome.’”

Acts 23:11: “The following night the Lord stood by him and said, ‘Take courage, for as you have testified to the facts about me in Jerusalem, so you must testify also in Rome.’”

Acts 28:14-17: “And so we came to Rome … 16 And when we came into Rome, Paul was allowed to stay by himself, with the soldier who guarded him. 17 After three days he called together the local leaders of the Jews, and when they had gathered, he said to them, ‘Brothers, though I had done nothing against our people or the customs of our fathers, yet I was delivered as a prisoner from Jerusalem into the hands of the Romans.’”

Second, in the Prison Epistles, Paul expresses joy that he is imprisoned. Why would he rejoice in that? Because in this way the gospel has reached the capital city as he had so long desired.

Eph 3:1-13: “For this reason I, Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus on behalf of you Gentiles … So I ask you not to lose heart over what I am suffering for you, which is your glory.”

Eph 6:18-20: “To that end, keep alert with all perseverance, making supplication for all the saints, 19 and also for me, that words may be given to me in opening my mouth boldly to proclaim the mystery of the gospel, 20 for which I am an ambassador in chains, that I may declare it boldly, as I ought to speak.”

Phil 1:3-14: “I thank my God in all my remembrance of you, 4 always in every prayer of mine for you all making my prayer with joy, 5 because of your partnership in the gospel from the first day until now … because I hold you in my heart, you are all partakers with me of grace, both in my imprisonment and in the defense and confirmation of the gospel … 12 I want you to know, brothers, that what has happened to me has really served to advance the gospel. 13 so that it has become known throughout the whole imperial guard and to all the rest that my imprisonment is for Christ. 14 And most of the brothers, having become confident in the Lord by my imprisonment, are much more bold to speak the word without fear.”

This is not a conclusive argument, but it adds weight to the impression that he is writing these letters as a prisoner in Rome.