Chapter 5: Biblical Covenantal Terminology

The preceding chapters examined covenant theology from the perspective of systematic theology, focusing on the Covenant of Works, the Covenant of Redemption, and the Covenant of Grace. We now turn more directly to biblical theology and begin tracing the covenants as they appear in the history of revelation.

Before considering the Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and new covenants individually, it is helpful to study the vocabulary Scripture uses for covenants. We will examine the Hebrew noun berit, the verbs associated with making, keeping, and breaking covenants, the language of oaths and curses, and the biblical theme of God’s covenant faithfulness. This terminology will help us distinguish the various kinds of covenants found in Scripture rather than forcing all covenants into a single theological pattern.

The second part of the lecture considers the Noahic covenant of common grace. This covenant does not administer salvation in the same way as the Covenant of Grace. Instead, it preserves the fallen world as a common realm in which human culture continues and the history of redemption can unfold.

The Hebrew Word Berit

The principal Hebrew noun translated “covenant” is berit. The word is used for a wide variety of oath-bound arrangements, including personal friendships, agreements concerning particular tasks, international treaties, and the great divine covenants of redemptive history. Its breadth of usage shows that “covenant” is not itself a synonym for grace, salvation, or religious relationship. The character of any particular covenant depends on its parties, promises, obligations, sanctions, and oath.

Human Covenants

Personal Agreements

Scripture uses berit for agreements between individuals. Abraham and Abimelech made a covenant concerning peaceful relations and the ownership of a well at Beersheba (Gen. 21:22–34). Isaac later made a similar covenant with Abimelech (Gen. 26:26–33). Jacob and Laban established a boundary and swore not to cross it for hostile purposes (Gen. 31:44–54).

The covenants between David and Jonathan are especially personal. Their covenant formalized a loyal friendship and mutual commitment extending to their households (1 Sam. 18:3; 20:8; 23:18). These examples demonstrate that a covenant may establish or regulate a relationship of friendship, but friendship is not the definition of covenant. The covenant is the sworn commitment that binds the relationship.

Agreements for a Particular Purpose

A covenant may also be a temporary arrangement made to accomplish a specific task. David made an agreement with Abner concerning the transfer of the northern tribes from Saul’s house to David’s kingship (2 Sam. 3:12–13). Jehoiada made a pact with the royal guards to protect and enthrone Joash (2 Kings 11:4; 2 Chron. 23:1–3). Such covenants were limited in scope and purpose.

Political Treaties

The word berit frequently denotes a treaty between political rulers or nations. Israel was forbidden to make treaties with the Canaanites because such alliances would compromise Israel’s holy separation and draw the nation into idolatry (Exod. 23:32; 34:12–16; Deut. 7:2). Israel nevertheless entered a treaty with the Gibeonites and remained obligated to honor its oath even though the Gibeonites had obtained it by deception (Josh. 9; 2 Sam. 21:1–2).

Other examples include the covenant of kingship between David and the elders of Israel at Hebron (2 Sam. 5:3), the treaty between Hiram and Solomon concerning materials for the temple (1 Kings 5:12), and the treaties of Asa and Ahab with Ben-hadad (1 Kings 15:19; 20:34). Ezekiel 17 interprets the relationship between Nebuchadnezzar and Zedekiah explicitly as a vassal treaty. Zedekiah’s rebellion against Babylon was not merely a political miscalculation; it was the violation of an oath made before God.

These political examples justify cautious comparison between biblical covenants and ancient Near Eastern treaties. Scripture itself uses the same covenant vocabulary for human treaties and divine covenants. External historical evidence has no authority over Scripture, but it can illuminate the cultural forms God employed when he condescended to reveal himself.

Ancient Near Eastern Treaty Forms

Ancient suzerain-vassal treaties often followed a recognizable structure. The great king identified himself in a preamble, recounted his past dealings with the lesser king in a historical prologue, imposed stipulations, announced blessings and curses, and prescribed the deposition and public reading of the treaty document.

The Sinai covenant contains comparable features. God identifies himself as the LORD, recounts his deliverance of Israel from Egypt, gives covenant stipulations, and attaches blessings and curses. The tablets are placed in the ark as the covenant document. These parallels do not mean that Israel merely copied pagan treaties. Rather, God sovereignly used a familiar political form to establish Israel as his covenant servant and vassal kingdom.

Divine Covenants

The same noun berit is used for the principal divine covenants in Scripture:

• the covenant with Noah before and after the flood;
• the covenant with Abraham and the patriarchs;
• the covenant made with Israel through Moses;
• the covenant with David;
• and the new covenant announced by the prophets.

The Noahic covenant after the flood preserves the common order of creation. The Abrahamic covenant establishes the promise of the Covenant of Grace. The Mosaic covenant orders Israel’s national existence and introduces a typological works principle. The Davidic covenant guarantees a royal offspring and points to the obedient Messiah. The new covenant fulfills the Abrahamic and Davidic promises through Christ.

The new covenant is also called an everlasting covenant and a covenant of peace (Isa. 54:10; 55:3; 61:8; Jer. 32:40; Ezek. 34:25; 37:26). These titles emphasize its permanence and its accomplishment of reconciliation between God and his people.

Covenant Renewals

The Mosaic covenant was repeatedly renewed. Moses renewed it on the plains of Moab (Deut. 29), Joshua at Shechem (Josh. 24:25), Jehoiada during the restoration of Joash (2 Kings 11:17), Josiah after the discovery of the Book of the Law (2 Kings 23:1–3), and the postexilic community under Ezra and Nehemiah.

These ceremonies are significant because Israel repeatedly swore again to keep the Mosaic law. We do not find comparable ceremonies in which God renews the Abrahamic oath as if human failure has placed its fulfillment in doubt. God repeats and confirms the Abrahamic promises to Isaac and Jacob, but the promise itself remains secure because God, not Abraham, took the covenant oath.

Cutting a Covenant

The ordinary Hebrew expression for making a covenant is literally “to cut a covenant.” This phrase reflects the covenant-making ritual in which animals were cut into pieces and the oath-taker passed between them.

Genesis 15 provides the clearest example. Abraham divided the animals, and the divine theophany passed between the pieces:

“When the sun had gone down and it was dark, behold, a smoking fire pot and a flaming torch passed between these pieces. On that day the LORD made (cut) a covenant with Abram.” —Genesis 15:17–18

The ritual enacted a self-maledictory oath: “May I become like these slaughtered animals if I fail to keep my word.” In Genesis 15, God alone passes between the pieces. He binds himself to fulfill the promise and symbolically takes the threatened curse upon himself.

Jeremiah 34 reveals the same meaning when Judah’s leaders violate their covenant to release Hebrew slaves:

“The men who transgressed my covenant and did not keep the terms of the covenant that they made before me, I will make them like the calf that they cut in two and passed between its parts.” —Jeremiah 34:18

The judgment corresponds to the oath ritual. Those who invoked the curse upon themselves and then broke the covenant became liable to the curse they had enacted.

Human mediators may also be said to make a covenant when they administer a covenant renewal. Moses made the covenant with Israel in Moab, Joshua made a covenant with the people at Shechem, Jehoiada made a covenant between the LORD, the king, and the people, and Josiah led Judah in covenant renewal. In each case, the human leader administered the oath by which the people bound themselves to God’s law.

Establishing a Covenant

The expression “establish a covenant” can refer either to initiating a covenant or confirming one already given. God establishes the Noahic covenant with Noah and every living creature (Gen. 9:9–17). He also establishes his covenant with Abraham’s offspring, confirming and carrying forward the promise already announced (Gen. 17:7, 19, 21).

Context must determine whether the verb “establish” refers to the initial establishment of a covenant or the confirmation of a preexisting oath.

Keeping, Confirming, and Remembering a Covenant

Both God and human beings may be said to keep covenant. Abraham and his offspring are commanded to keep the covenant sign of circumcision, and Israel is commanded to keep the Mosaic covenant. God, however, is especially described as the one who keeps covenant and steadfast love.

“Know therefore that the LORD your God is God, the faithful God who keeps covenant and steadfast love.” —Deuteronomy 7:9

God confirms the covenant he swore to the patriarchs by fulfilling his promises. He confirms his word to Abraham, fulfills his promise to David, and brings about the restoration announced by the prophets. Scripture also speaks of God remembering his covenants. This does not mean that he had forgotten them mentally. To remember a covenant is to act in faithfulness to it.

“God heard their groaning, and God remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob.” —Exodus 2:24

The verbs keep, confirm, and remember are characteristically used of God’s Abrahamic and Davidic promises. They are not used in the same way of God keeping the Mosaic covenant, because the Mosaic covenant placed Israel under an oath that Israel repeatedly broke.

Breaking and Transgressing a Covenant

Scripture uses several verbs for covenant violation: break, transgress, forsake, forget, profane, violate, defile, and deal falsely with a covenant. These expressions occur most often in connection with the Mosaic covenant and political treaties.

Israel transgressed the Mosaic covenant by idolatry and disobedience:

“Israel has sinned; they have transgressed my covenant that I commanded them.” —Joshua 7:11

The exile is later explained in the same terms:

“They did not obey the voice of the LORD their God but transgressed his covenant, even all that Moses the servant of the LORD commanded.” —2 Kings 18:12

Hosea 6:7 uses the same expression to compare Israel with Adam:

“Like Adam they transgressed the covenant; there they dealt faithlessly with me.” —Hosea 6:7

God, by contrast, declares that he will not break his Abrahamic and Davidic promises. Even when Israel is under judgment in exile, God remembers the patriarchal covenant and refuses to destroy his people utterly (Lev. 26:42–45). Jeremiah 33 declares the Davidic covenant as secure as the fixed order of day and night.

Oath and Curse

Hebrew uses two related word groups for oath-taking. One is the ordinary vocabulary of swearing an oath. The other is a word group associated with a curse. The overlap is theologically important because a covenant oath invokes sanctions upon the oath-taker.

Scripture sometimes joins the terms explicitly:

“The rest of the people … join with their brothers, their nobles, and enter into a curse and an oath to walk in God’s Law.” —Nehemiah 10:28–29

Daniel describes Israel’s exile as the outpouring of “the curse and the oath” written in the Mosaic law (Dan. 9:11). The oath is therefore not merely an emphatic promise. It places the oath-taker under a threatened judgment for unfaithfulness.

Covenant and Oath

Covenant and oath are repeatedly joined. Scripture speaks of “the covenant that he swore” and “the covenant that he made with Abraham, his oath to Isaac” (Deut. 4:31; 1 Chron. 16:16; Ps. 105:9). Human covenants are likewise ratified by oath, as in Abraham’s covenant with Abimelech, Israel’s treaty with the Gibeonites, and Nebuchadnezzar’s vassal treaty with Zedekiah.

This evidence supports Meredith Kline’s concise definition of covenant as an oath-bound commitment. A covenant contains a commitment concerning future action, and an oath solemnizes that commitment by invoking sanctions.

The Abrahamic Oath

God repeatedly identifies his promise to the patriarchs as an oath:

“By myself I have sworn, declares the LORD.” —Genesis 22:16

“The LORD … spoke to me and swore to me, ‘To your offspring I will give this land.’” —Genesis 24:7

“I will establish the oath that I swore to Abraham your father.” —Genesis 26:3

Because no one is greater than God, he swears by himself. His own character and life stand behind the promise. This oath becomes the foundation of Israel’s confidence throughout the Old Testament. Moses appeals to it after the golden calf, and the prophets appeal to it in times of judgment and exile.

“You will show faithfulness to Jacob and steadfast love to Abraham, as you have sworn to our fathers from the days of old.” —Micah 7:20

The Mosaic Oath

God never swears an unconditional oath guaranteeing that Israel will remain in the land regardless of their obedience or lack thereof. The Mosaic covenant instead contains divine oaths of judgment and human oaths of obedience.

After the wilderness rebellion, God swears that the unbelieving generation will not enter his rest (Num. 14:21–23; Ps. 95:11). In covenant-renewal ceremonies, the people swear to seek the LORD and walk in his law. Under Asa, Judah “entered into a covenant to seek the LORD” and “swore an oath to the LORD” (2 Chron. 15:12–15). The postexilic community similarly entered “into a curse and an oath to walk in God’s law” (Neh. 10:29).

The distinction is decisive. In the Abrahamic covenant, God takes the oath and guarantees the promise. In the Mosaic covenant, Israel takes the oath and becomes liable to the curse for disobedience.

The Davidic and New-Covenant Oaths

God also swears an oath to David:

“I have made a covenant with my chosen one; I have sworn to David my servant.” —Psalm 89:3

“The LORD swore to David a sure oath from which he will not turn back.” —Psalm 132:11

The Davidic promise is therefore guaranteed ultimately in Christ, even though individual kings may be disciplined and removed.

The prophets use oath language for the new covenant as well. God swears that his covenant of peace will not be removed (Isa. 54:9–10), and Isaiah 45:23 announces the universal reign of the coming Lord:

“By myself I have sworn … To me every knee shall bow.” —Isaiah 45:23

The language of God’s steadfast love and faithfulness is covenantal language. The Hebrew words hesed and emet are often paired to describe his unwavering commitment to his promises.

“The LORD, the LORD, a God merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness.” —Exodus 34:6

“The word of the LORD is upright, and all his work is done in faithfulness.” —Psalm 33:4

“Great is your faithfulness.” —Lamentations 3:23

God’s faithfulness means that he acts consistently with the oath he has sworn. Human unfaithfulness cannot nullify an unconditional divine promise. This truth is especially associated with the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants. God is “the faithful God who keeps covenant and steadfast love” because his own character guarantees his word.

1. Covenant = Oath-Bound Commitment

Our survey of biblical terminology around covenants above confirms Kline’s definition. Swearing an oath lies at the heart of covenant-making. The covenant specifies what is promised or required, identifies the party who assumes the obligation, and attaches sanctions to faithfulness or unfaithfulness.

2. Covenant Is Not a Monolithic Concept

A covenant is an instrument that can serve different purposes. Some covenants establish personal friendships. Some accomplish limited political tasks. Some contain absolute divine guarantees. Others place a human party under conditions of blessing and curse.

It is therefore misleading to define every covenant as “God’s gracious relationship with his people” or as a “sovereign administration of grace and promise.” Such definitions may describe the Covenant of Grace, but they cannot account for the Covenant of Works, the Mosaic law-covenant in its narrow aspect, political treaties, or covenants of judgment.

A covenant may establish and govern a loving relationship, and by extension the word covenant can sometimes refer to the resulting bond. Nevertheless, its fundamental meaning is an oath-bound commitment.

3. Promise Covenants and Law Covenants

The identity of the oath-taker helps distinguish the two major covenantal patterns.

In a promise covenant, God takes the oath. He binds himself to bestow the blessing, and the proper human response is faith. The Abrahamic and Davidic covenants have this character.

In a law covenant, the human servant takes the oath and must render the stipulated obedience. Blessing follows covenant keeping, while the curse follows covenant breaking. The Covenant of Works with Adam and the Mosaic covenant in its national, typological aspect have this character.

The Mosaic covenant is closely related to the Abrahamic covenant, but it is not merely a restatement of it. The Abrahamic promise continues beneath the Mosaic administration, yet the law introduces a distinct oath and works principle. This explains why Scripture repeatedly says that God remembers and keeps the Abrahamic and Davidic covenants, while Israel is repeatedly said to break and transgress the Mosaic covenant.

4. From Biblical Covenants to Theological Covenants

The five principal post-fall biblical covenants—Noahic, Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and new—provide the historical material from which the three theological covenants are systematically formulated. Covenant theology begins with careful exegesis of the covenants in their historical sequence and then asks how their relationships disclose the Covenant of Works, the Covenant of Redemption, and the Covenant of Grace.

Conclusion

The Bible’s covenant vocabulary reveals both unity and diversity. Every covenant is an oath-bound commitment, but not every covenant has the same parties, conditions, or purpose. The Abrahamic and Davidic covenants are guaranteed promise covenants because God himself swears the oath. The Mosaic covenant places Israel under an oath of obedience and threatens the curse for covenant breaking.